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The Ghassanid imperial titles have long attracted the interest of historians, jurists, and etymologists, especially given their unique evolution within Arab and Byzantine history. Although the topic is not widely discussed, ample historical evidence confirms that the Ghassanid rulers, already kings in their own right, were granted the title of "Basileus" in the 6th century CE—a title traditionally reserved for emperors. 

The Title "Basileus"

Historically, the term "Basileus" and its derivative, "Megas Basileus," were titles used by Alexander the Great and his successors, such as the Ptolemies in Egypt and the Seleucids in Asia. These titles evolved to signify imperial authority, unlike the earlier, less formal perceptions of kingship in Greece. By the 4th century, however, "Basileus" was used almost exclusively to refer to rulers who were considered the equals of the Roman Emperor, such as the Sassanid Persian Shahan Shah ("King of Kings") and, to a lesser extent, the King of Axum (Chrysos, 1978).

By the 5th century, following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, "Basileus" came to signify "emperor" and was reserved solely for the Byzantine emperor in Constantinople. Other rulers, particularly those of the emerging barbarian kingdoms, were referred to in Greek as "rēx" or "rēgas," the Hellenized forms of the Latin "rex" (king) (Kazhdan, 1991).

Ghassanid Titles: A Source of Confusion

The titles held by Ghassanid rulers have often needed to be understood by historians unfamiliar with the nuances of Arab-Byzantine relations. The Ghassanid kings have been mistakenly referred to as "Phylarchs" (tribal leaders) or, in some cases, simply as "chieftains," which diminishes the grandeur of their actual titles. Many Ghassanid rulers bore titles such as "Al-Malik Al-Ghassassinah" (King of the Ghassanids) and "Basileus Araves" (Emperor of all Arabs).

The confusion extends to the title "Phylarch." While a "Phylarch" was a tribal ruler in the Roman Empire, the Ghassanid rulers were not merely tribal chiefs. Instead, they were kings who ruled over multiple Arab tribes and territories within the Byzantine sphere. The supreme "Phylarchate" conferred upon them was a recognition of their authority over many tribes, making their position imperial (Kazhdan, 1991).

The Title of "Sheikh"

The title "Sheikh," often associated with Arab nobility, has also been misapplied to the Ghassanid rulers. While "Sheikh" is a title of respect in Arab culture, typically denoting a tribal leader or a person of high social rank, it does not carry the same weight as the title of "king" or "emperor." According to Professor Irfan Shahid, the title given to Ghassanid rulers by their people was "Malik" (king), not "Sheikh". The distinction is important, as it underscores the regal and imperial authority of the Ghassanid rulers in their interactions with their Arab subjects and the Byzantine Empire. 

 “Sheikh (pronounced /ʃeɪk/ SHAYK or /ʃiːk/ SHEEK; Arabic: شيخ‎ šayḫ [ʃæjx], mostly pronounced [ʃeːx/ʃejx], plural شيوخ šuyūḫ [ʃuju:x])—also transliterated Sheik, Shaik, Shayk, Shaykh, Cheikh, Shekh, and Shaikh—is an honorific title in the Arabic language. It commonly designates the ruler of a tribe, who inherited the title from his father. “Sheikh” is given to a royal male at birth, whereas the related title “Sheikha” is given to a royal female at birth.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheikh 

 There were several different categories of “Sheikh” in Mount Lebanon through history. To understand the role and importance of the Sheikhs El Chemor in later times one has to comprehend the nobiliary system of Mount Lebanon in the last centuries. 

The title “Sheikh” is used mostly in three different connotations:

1. Religious – although more recent, doesn’t concern this article,
2. Royal – “sui iuris” hereditary sovereign or semi-sovereign ruler,
3. Noble – noble title given by a sovereign or semi-sovereign ruler hereditary (“ad eternum”) or not (“ad personam”)
   

 The Sheikhs El Chemor were ruling Akoura since 1211 CE, exact 305 years before the Ottoman invasion. They were known and acclaimed by the people as “sui iuris”  “Sheikhs”, they were not formally invested (or elevated) by an Emperor, Sultan or Emir being therefore, Royal Sheikhs– “sui iuris” hereditary sovereign or semi-sovereign ruler. 

Ghassanid Sovereignty and Vassalage

In 528 CE, Emperor Justinian I bestowed the title of "Basileus" upon King Al-Harith VI (Arethas in Greek), thus granting the Ghassanid ruler the same status as the Roman Emperor. This was an unprecedented move, as noted by the historian Procopius, who remarked that this title had never before been conferred upon a non-Roman ruler (Shahid, 1995). The title of "Basileus Araves" (Emperor of the Arabs) further reinforced the Ghassanid king’s authority over numerous Arab tribes allied with the Byzantine Empire.

Despite their alliance with Byzantium, the Ghassanids maintained a high degree of sovereignty. Their vassalage to the Byzantine emperor was primarily military and ceremonial, involving no payment of tribute. The Byzantine Empire paid the Ghassanid kings a salary to support their armies, thus preserving their political and military autonomy. According to international legal standards, such vassalage does not diminish a state’s sovereignty (Halleck, Elements of International Law, 1844).

The Usays Inscription: Evidence of Imperial Authority

One of the most compelling pieces of evidence for the Ghassanid imperial titles is the Usays Inscription, a 6th-century document that refers to King Al-Harith VI as "Al-Malik" (the King). This inscription is considered one of the most important Arabic inscriptions of the pre-Islamic period, corroborating the Ghassanid ruler’s imperial authority (Shahid, 1995). Additionally, the poet laureate of the Ghassanids often referred to his patrons as "crowned heads," further confirming their regal status.

Ghassanid Imperial Legacy

The imperial legacy of the Ghassanid dynasty did not end with the fall of the first Ghassanid state. After the Muslim conquest, Ghassanid rulers exercised authority in isolated regions, and their descendants maintained a presence in Byzantine Anatolia. The most notable example is Emperor Nicephorus I (802-811 CE), a descendant of the Ghassanid King Jabala, who briefly established a Ghassanid dynasty in Byzantium (Shahid, 1989).

Later, in the 13th century, Leo Gabalas, a Ghassanid descendant, ruled the island of Rhodes, further cementing the dynasty’s imperial credentials. By this time, the Ghassanids had acquired imperial titles on three separate occasions: first, in 528 CE from Emperor Justinian; second, in 802 CE through Emperor Nicephorus; and third, in 1203 CE through Leo Gabalas.

Modern Recognition of Ghassanid Titles

The modern legal recognition of the Ghassanid titles stems not solely from their ancient origins but also through the continued rule of the El-Chemor family in Lebanon until the 18th century. The Ottoman Empire recognized the family’s titles until its dissolution in 1924, and the Lebanese Republic continues to acknowledge them today. An official 2014 article from the Lebanese Government News Agency attests to the legitimacy of these titles.

Conclusion

The Ghassanid dynasty’s imperial titles, conferred by the Byzantine Empire and upheld through centuries of regional rule, mark them as one of the most significant Arab dynasties in history. Despite the confusion surrounding their titles, the historical evidence is clear: the Ghassanid rulers were not merely tribal chiefs or local kings but emperors in their own right, commanding authority over a wide array of Arab tribes and territories within the Byzantine Empire.

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References

• Chrysos, Evangelos K. “The Title ΒΑΣΙΛΕΥΣ in Early Byzantine International Relations.” Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Vol. 32, 1978.
• Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford University Press, 1991.
  
• Shahid, Irfan. Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century. Harvard University Press, 1995.
  
• Halleck, Henry Wager. Elements of International Law and Laws of War. 1844.
  
• Shoup, John A. Culture and Customs of Jordan. Greenwood, 2007.​